A retired Australian general described the defensive lines that Russia had built in Ukraine as “much more complex and deadly than anything experienced by any military in nearly 80 years.”

And the former officer, Mick Ryan, told The Economist that breaking through those defenses would require the best of combined-arms operational skills, something that the military analyst Michael Kofman told the outlet Ukraine had not shown at scale.

Ukraine started its long-awaited counteroffensive in June, aimed at taking back territory in the east and south of the country. But it has made only marginal gains.

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said efforts had been hampered by the strong defenses that Russia was able to build as it waited for Ukraine’s big attack to begin.

Satellite imagery from when Ukraine was preparing to start its counteroffensive showed Russia strengthening its 600-mile front line with minefields, barricades, “dragon’s teeth” obstacles, and anti-tank ditches.

The minefields have, in places, forced Ukrainian soldiers to leave behind some of their advanced Western tanks and progress on foot.

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