Alexander the Great, the greatest military commander of all time, is globally known, especially for his military successes. Even in the areas he conquered, he is worshipped as a god. However, in recent years, he is being disrespected in his own country, Greece, by various people. We can understand the disrespect from the people of North Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, etc., to a certain extent. But to be slandered by Greeks themselves, especially with completely unfounded speculations and without any scientific evidence, we find it utterly unacceptable. Unfortunately, division is not only a characteristic of the Greeks, but very often tendencies of self-destruction as well… We have thoroughly covered the military achievements of Alexander the Great in various articles.

And in fact, from his campaigns in the Balkans, even before he began his operations in Asia. Today, we will focus on Alexander’s childhood, when he had not yet acquired the title “Great.” Unfortunately, while Arrian provides us with abundant information about Alexander’s battles in Asia, he does not mention his childhood. The relevant information comes from Plutarch, who based his work primarily on the unreliable Cleitarchus, who wrote a romanticized biography between 314 BC and 290 BC titled The Histories of Alexander. Although Cleitarchus includes details from Callisthenes, Nearchus, and Onesicritus, he also includes obviously mythical elements, like the meeting of Alexander with the queen of the Amazons in Hyrcania. Plutarch, while considering some elements from Callisthenes, is much more reliable. However, Cleitarchus, born in Colophon in Ionia, was a source for other historians, including Diodorus of Sicily, Quintus Curtius Rufus, and Justin.

The Birth and Childhood of Alexander

Alexander the Macedonian was born in the capital of Macedonia, Pella, in 356 BC, most likely in the month of Hekatombaeon of the Attic Calendar, the first month of the calendar, which follows the Noumenia (new moon) after the summer solstice.

That is, Alexander was born either at the end of June in 356 BC or in July of the same year. His father, Philip II, the king of Macedonia, was a descendant of the ancient King Caranus, who traced his lineage back to the mythical hero Heracles. His mother, Olympias, was the daughter of the King of the Molossians of Epirus, Neoptolemus II, who was descended from another great hero of Greek mythology, Achilles. At that time, much importance was given to the fantastical and supernatural. According to Plutarch, Alexander’s lineage had its roots in the distant past, in the age of demigods and heroes. Thus, his heritage was both royal and heroic.

Herostratus while setting fire to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

The future of Alexander was foretold to be bright from the day of his birth, as on this day (perhaps July 21, 356 BC) several very significant events took place: the burning of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the wonders of the ancient world, by Herostratus, who did it in order to immortalize his name in history. The Ephesiacs executed him and forbade any mention of his name, which, however, was preserved by Theopompus of Chios in his work Greeks and later by many other Greek and Latin historians. The priests of Ephesus predicted that the destruction of the temple meant the birth of the future conqueror of Asia (Plutarch, Alexander, 3).

The birth of the heir to the Macedonian throne was also linked to the triple victory of his father, Philip II, at Potidaea in Chalcidice, which he captured. Philip also received the news that his general Parmenion had defeated the Illyrians, that one of his cavalrymen had won at the Olympic Games, and that he had a son. This made the soothsayers assure Philip that, when his son grew up, he would be invincible. In the Narrative of Alexander by Pseudo-Callisthenes, it is mentioned that an earthquake preceded Alexander’s birth, accompanied by lightning and thunder. While some might consider all of this trivial, it has occupied many important foreign historians throughout history.

Alexander’s education was traditional. Initially, his care was entrusted to Ianike, a famous Macedonian wet-nurse. His first significant teacher was Leonidas, “a man of strict character and a relative of Olympias,” who was called “the foster father and teacher of Alexander,” meaning the one who raised and guided him. Another of his teachers was Lysimachus the Acarnanian.

In the collective work Alexander the Great, by the Society for Macedonian Studies, Thessaloniki 1980, D. Kanatsoulis writes in the chapter “The Cultural Work of Alexander the Great”: “Alexander was also educated by the Cynic philosopher Philiscus, and during his campaign in Asia, he was accompanied by followers of the Cynic School, who particularly enjoyed his favor. This Macedonian generosity, not only for political expediency, was certainly the basis for the gentle politics Alexander displayed, except for a few exceptions, throughout his military career towards the conquered peoples.”

As Demosthenes, who had gone to Macedonia to sign the so-called “Peace of Philocrates” (346 BC), mentions in a symposium hosted by Philip, Alexander, then 10 years old, played the lyre “for the honor of the symposiasts, and also had some discussions and debates with another child,” meaning he had a dialogue with another child, possibly a bit “cheeky,” as Sarantos Kargakos writes. Demosthenes is famously known for his anti-Macedonian sentiments, but unintentionally, by writing the above, he confirms that Alexander had received an excellent education and stood out for his intelligence.

Alexander and Aristotle

However, the one who truly marked Alexander with his teachings was the great philosopher Aristotle, from Stagira in Chalcidice, a student of Plato. Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), when he was chosen by Philip to tutor his son, was about 40 years old and not particularly well-known at the time. However, he had gained some reputation as an excellent student of Plato, a philosopher, and a naturalist. The beginning of Alexander’s tutelage under Aristotle took place in 343 BC, when the Macedonian commander was 13 years old. Shortly before this, Aristotle had been teaching his “Peripatetic philosophy” in Assos (Troas) in Asia Minor, under the protection of the tyrant of Atarneus, Hermias, and was married to his niece, Pythias. After Pythias’ death, Aristotle became involved with Hermias’ slave, Erpylis.

Aristotle and Alexander

Hermias, who had diplomatic relations with King Philip II, introduced Aristotle to him. Furthermore, Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was a physician at the court of Amyntas III, Philip’s father and Alexander’s grandfather, which suggests that Aristotle’s selection was not a random one. However, there was a problem: when Philip invited the philosopher from Stagira, he was in Lesbos, as Hermias had been killed by the Persians. Aristotle was hesitant to travel to Pella, as Philip had destroyed his homeland and enslaved its people. According to Plutarch, who perhaps wanted to “restore” the reputation of the Macedonian king, he wrote that Philip “rebuilt Stagira, which he had destroyed himself, and made sure that the inhabitants, who had fled or were enslaved, returned” (Plutarch, “Alexander”, 7).

Philip reprimands Alexander, painting by Donato Creti, created between 1700-1705

Thus, Aristotle agreed to take on the education of Alexander. Philip knew that for his son to gain real knowledge, he needed to go somewhere where he could concentrate and be isolated. Therefore, he decided that the teaching would take place in the sacred grove of the Nymphs, in Mieza. Today, Mieza is located in the area of Leukadia in Imathia. Alongside Alexander, boys from aristocratic Macedonian families, close friends of the crown prince, also went to Mieza: Arpalos, Ptolemy, Erigaios, Hephaestion, Ptolemy (the future Ptolemy I Soter), Cassander, and Cleitus the Black.

The Peripatetic School of Aristotle in Mieza

The teaching in Mieza lasted about three years, as in 340 BC, it is known that Aristotle left for Athens. Very little is known about what exactly Aristotle taught Alexander. Certainly, however, the young heir to the Macedonian throne learned the secrets of philosophy and poetry, ethics, and the administration of the state, and probably the foundations of the Peripatetic philosophy. The love for Homer’s epics, which had been instilled in him very early on by Lysimachus, was reinforced in Alexander by Aristotle. He even compiled a summary of the “Iliad” for his student, which Alexander never parted with, as he believed that the epic “promotes martial courage.”

Throughout his life, Alexander tried to imitate the heroes of the “Iliad” in both behavior and appearance. As noted by, among others, Dion Chrysostom (“Orations” IV. 39), Alexander boasted that he knew the entire “Iliad” by heart and a large part of the “Odyssey.” The tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and especially Euripides, who, in his final years, withdrew to the court of the Macedonian king Archelaus and wrote the “Heracleidae,” a tragedy about the founders of the ruling Macedonian dynasty, likely led Aristotle to introduce Alexander to Medicine. According to Plutarch (“Alexander” 8), Alexander knew both the theory and practice of Medicine.

The social and political thought of the 4th century BC

The social and political thought of the 4th century BC was largely shaped by the views of Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, and Demosthenes. All of them supported the superiority of the political organization of the Greeks in comparison to other peoples, the “barbarians.” Aristotle, going even further, believed that the Greeks “must rule the barbarians.” Barbarians were all the other peoples who did not have a free form of government as their political system and, therefore, were used to living as slaves. Regarding the peoples living to the north of Greece, the philosopher from Stagira believed that they were inherently brave, but not sufficiently rational, and lacked a talent for the arts. That’s why they lived freely, but could not rule over others.

The Asians have a talent for the arts, but they lack courage, and therefore live in servitude. The Greeks have both qualities, which is why they could rule over everyone if they were united (“Politics,” VII, 6,1,1327b). Plutarch also writes that Aristotle advised Alexander “to behave with the Greeks as a leader, but with the barbarians as a master, to treat the former as friends and relatives, but to use the latter as animals or plants.” These pieces of advice are believed to come from Aristotle’s treatises “On Alexander or on Colonies” and “On Kingship,” although their authenticity is disputed.

In any case, in the East, Alexander founded settlements of Greek colonists, cities with mixed populations, and approached the local aristocracy—doing the opposite of what Aristotle had advised him. This was because, with Alexander’s successes in Asia, his plans changed, and he increasingly leaned towards creating a global empire based on the alliance and unity of the kingdoms of Macedonia and Persia (Arrian, “Anabasis of Alexander,” VII,11,9). Of course, while Alexander may not have said the phrase “I owe my life to my father, and my good life to my teacher,” it is likely that what Plutarch writes is closer to the truth: “As he (Alexander) said, ‘I live because of my father, and I live well because of him (Aristotle)'” (“Alexander,” 8,4).

The taming of Bucephalus

A particular interest is the taming of the wild horse, which was later named Bucephalus. A Thessalian merchant, Philonikus, came from Thessaly (probably from Pharsalus) to Macedonia with a rare breed of horse, trying to sell it to Philip for 13 talents. Philip, along with his associates, went to the plain to assess the horse’s value. However, the horse appeared wild and difficult to handle (“it is difficult and hardly manageable”). No one could ride it. Philip became annoyed and ordered the horse to be taken away. However, Alexander, who was watching the scene, said reproachfully: “What kind of horse are they losing because they cannot tame it due to inexperience and softness?” (“What horse they lose because they can’t tame it due to inexperience and softness”).

Bucephalus before Alexander tamed him

The… world-famous Greek word “m…s” in antiquity meant “soft.” Initially, Philip was silent, but Alexander repeated the statement. Annoyed, Philip said to his son: “Are you criticizing the older men because you think you know more and can govern such a horse better?” Alexander nodded affirmatively, and Philip, wanting to dissuade him from this risky endeavor, said, “If you fail, what will your punishment be?” – “I will pay the price of the horse,” said Alexander. Philip and his companions laughed. Alexander took action.

As he later proved during his campaigns, Alexander knew how to observe. He noticed that the lively horse was afraid of its shadow when it fell in front of it. He confidently approached the horse, took the reins, and turned its head toward the sun. He then let it gallop freely, and after caressing it, he threw his cloak over its back (ancient riders did not use saddles), climbed onto it, and let it run freely. The horse started running very fast. Philip and his companions fell silent, worried that Alexander might fall off and hurt himself. However, after a long gallop, Alexander returned to the royal entourage, with the horse completely tamed. Full of admiration, Philip kissed Alexander on the head and said:

Alexander, the greatest general of all time

“Child, seek a kingdom worthy of you. Macedonia cannot contain you.” The horse was named “Bucephalus,” either because its head resembled the head of an ox, or, more likely, because there was a mark on its head that resembled an ox’s head.

Alexander at 16 shows his military virtues – His role in the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

Alexander was a stubborn and eccentric child. His father used persuasion with him, not coercion. As a teenager, he was ambitious and power-hungry, could not stand objections, and often made reckless decisions. He even envied his father’s successes. As Plutarch writes, when he learned of his father’s latest victory, he sulked and said to his friends: “My father takes everything for himself, and there will be nothing left for me and for you to accomplish any great or glorious feat.” At the age of just 7, Alexander welcomed the Persian envoys when Philip was away.

The Battle of Chaeronea

He was present at the signing of the “Peace of Philocrates” (346 BC), and when, in 340 BC, Philip campaigned in Byzantium, he left the supervision of his son to the experienced General Antipater. At that time, the Medes, a Thracian tribe, took the opportunity to revolt against Macedonian rule. Alexander single-handedly took on the task of pacifying them and succeeded. He founded the city of Alexandroupolis on their land as a pillar of Macedonian influence in Thrace. His military virtues were displayed in the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC).

Diodorus, who extensively refers to this event, believes that the Macedonian victory over the Athenians was won thanks to Alexander, who commanded the left wing’s cavalry and was meant to deliver the decisive blow. Alexander stood strong in the heat of battle and, above all, demonstrated that he was a warrior with a strong sense of duty. It should be noted that Alexander was the first to always shave before battles and gave the same command to his soldiers. Until then, Greeks fought with beards (only Spartans were forbidden from wearing mustaches), which allowed their opponents to grab them by the beard in close combat, making it easier to kill them.

Philip II at Chaeronea

Alexander always wanted to stand out because he was very ambitious. And all of this, while he was only 18 years old… The rest is well known, although unfortunately, in recent years, there has been an attempt to tarnish his reputation and focus on his sexual preferences. Cleitarchus, with some exaggeration, writes that he had 365 concubines, one for each day of the year. Demosthenes, who hints at such matters, beyond his hatred of Macedonia, is immediately criticized by the great orator Aeschines. Those of you who don’t know, it’s best not to spread unsupported inaccuracies. Whether you’re Greek or come from a neighboring country with no past and an uncertain future…

P.S. The excellent painting depicting Philip “threatening” Alexander was created by Donato Creti 320 years ago. Greek painters refuse to engage with Alexander the Great, preferring abstract art and other related (vague) cultural expressions, as we’ve written in many of our articles…

Sources:
SARANTOS I. KARGAKOS, “ALEXANDER THE GREAT: THE PHENOMENON,” Part I
B. GAFOUROF – D. TSIMPOUKIDIS, “ALEXANDER THE MACEDONIAN AND THE EAST,” Papadima Publications, 2003
J.F.C. FULLER, “THE GENIUS STRATEGY OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT,” 12th Edition, PIOYTITA Publications, 2004
WORLD BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, Volume 1, Athens Publishing.